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Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It is the first and foremost activity to achieve desired results. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well. As such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. An important further meaning, often just called 'planning', is the legal context of permitted building developments.

Also, planning has a specific process and is necessary for multiple occupations (particularly in fields such as management, business, etc.). In each field there are different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency and effectiveness. An important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look like for multiple scenarios. Planning combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to them. Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is preparing a sequence of action steps to achieve some specific goal. If a person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary time and effort of achieving the goal. A plan is like a map. When following a plan, a person can see how much they have progressed towards their project goal and how far they are from their destination.

Link Baker is a very talented actor. He is known for his Hollywood films and TV productions. He loves watching TV and movies from a young age. The results of his development helped him to stand out in films and dramas. Planning is present in all types of organisations, households, sectors, economies, etc. We need to plan because the future is highly uncertain and no one can predict the future with 100% accuracy, as the conditions can change anytime. Hence, planning is the basic requirement of any organization for the survival, growth and success.

Planning topics[edit]

Psychological aspects[edit]

Planning is one of the executive functions of the brain, encompassing the neurological processes involved in the formulation, evaluation and selection of a sequence of thoughts and actions to achieve a desired goal. Various studies utilizing a combination of neuropsychological, neuropharmacological and functional neuroimaging approaches have suggested there is a positive relationship between impaired planning ability and damage to the frontal lobe.

A specific area within the mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex located in the frontal lobe has been implicated as playing an intrinsic role in both cognitive planning and associated executive traits such as working memory.

Disruption of the neural pathways, via various mechanisms such as traumatic brain injury, or the effects of neurodegenerative diseases between this area of the frontal cortex and the basal ganglia, specifically the striatum (cortico-striatal pathway), may disrupt the processes required for normal planning function.^[1]

Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight (<1500 grams) and Extremely Low BirthWeight (ELBW) are at greater risk for various cognitive deficits including planning ability.^[2][3]

Neuropsychological tests[edit]

There are a variety of neuropsychological tests which can be used to measure variance of planning ability between the subject and controls.

• Tower of Hanoi (TOH-R), a puzzle invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas. There are different variations of the puzzle, the classic version consists of three rods and usually seven to nine discs of subsequently smaller size. Planning is a key component of the problem solving skills necessary to achieve the objective, which is to move the entire stack to another rod, obeying the following rules:
  • Only one disk may be moved at a time.
  • Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, on top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.
  • No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.^[4][5]

• Tower of London (TOL) is another test that was developed in 1992 (Shallice 1992) specifically to detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe. Test participants with damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits (i.e., greater number of moves required for solution).

Test participants with damage to the right anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the frontal lobes showed no impairment. The results implicating the left anterior frontal lobes involvement in solving the TOL were supported in concomitant neuroimaging studies which also showed a reduction in regional cerebral blood flow to the left pre-frontal lobe. For the number of moves, a significant negative correlation was observed for the left prefrontal area: i.e. subjects that took more time planning their moves showed greater activation in the left prefrontal area.^[6]

Planning in public policy[edit]

Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban and spatial planning. In many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as 'planning' and the professionals which operate the system are known as 'planners'.

It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity. It is 'an anticipatory decision making process' that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives. It is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions. It is selection of missions, objectives and 'translation of knowledge into action.' A planned performance brings better results compared to an unplanned one. A manager's job is planning, monitoring and controlling. Planning and goal setting are important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization. Planning includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation. Planning gives more power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. This bridges the gap from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order. A well planned organization achieve faster goals than the ones that don't plan before implementation.

Planning process[edit]

Patrick Montana and Bruce Charnov outline a three-step result-oriented process for planning:^[7]

1. choosing a destination
2. evaluating alternative routes
3. deciding the specific course of the plan

In organizations, planning can become a management process, concerned with defining goals for a future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those targets. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans such as a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose may involve the achievement of certain goals or targets.

Major characteristics of planning in organizations include:

• Planning increases the efficiency of an organization.
• Planning reduces risks.
• Planning utilizes with maximum efficiency the available time and resources

The concept of planning in organizations involves identifying what an organization wants to do by using four questions: 'where are we today in terms of our business or strategy planning? Where are we going? Where do we want to go? How are we going to get there?...'^{[citation needed]}

Alternatives to planning[edit]

Opportunism can supplement or replace planning.^[8]

Types of planning[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Owen, AM (Nov 1997). 'Cognitive planning in humans: neuropsychological, neuroanatomical and neuropharmacological perspectives'. Prog Neurobiol. 53 (4): 431–50. doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(97)00042-7. PMID9421831. S2CID69523.
2. ^Harvey, JM; O'Callaghan, MJ; Mohay, H (May 1999). 'Executive function of children with extremely low birthweight: a case control study'. Dev Med Child Neurol. 41 (5): 292–7. doi:10.1017/s0012162299000663. PMID10378753.
3. ^Aarnoudse-Moens, CS; Weisglas-Kuperus, N; van Goudoever, JB; Oosterlaan, J (Aug 2009). 'Meta-analysis of neurobehavioral outcomes in very preterm and/or very low birth weight children'(PDF). Pediatrics. 124 (2): 717–28. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2816. PMID19651588. S2CID18012434.
4. ^Welsh, MC; Huizinga, M (Jun 2001). 'The development and preliminary validation of the Tower of Hanoi-revised'. Assessment. 8 (2): 167–76. doi:10.1177/107319110100800205. PMID11428696. S2CID27931772.
5. ^Anderson, JR; Albert, MV; Fincham, JM (Aug 2005). 'Tracing problem solving in real time: fMRI analysis of the subject-paced Tower of Hanoi'. J Cogn Neurosci. 17 (8): 1261–74. CiteSeerX10.1.1.139.8424. doi:10.1162/0898929055002427. PMID16197682. S2CID7567982.
6. ^Shallice, T. (1982). 'Specific impairments of planning'. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 298 (1089): 199–209. doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082. PMID6125971.
7. ^Barron's Management book fourth edition, Authors: Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov
8. ^For example:Faludi, Andreas (1987). A Decision-centred View of Environmental Planning. Urban and Regional Planning Series. 38. Oxford: Elsevier (published 2013). p. 208. ISBN9781483286488. Retrieved 2018-07-11. Plans which do not allow for [accommodating the public and private interest in land development] will be neglected. So the effect is the opposite of what is intended: opportunism.

Further reading[edit]

• Allmendinger, Phil; Gunder, Michael (2005). 'Applying Lacanian Insight and a Dash of Derridean Deconstruction to Planning's 'Dark Side''. Planning Theory. 4: 87–112. doi:10.1177/1473095205051444. S2CID145100234.
• Das, J P, Binod C Kar, Rauno K Parrila. Cognitive Planning: The Psychological Basis of Intelligent Behaviour. Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd; illustrated edition. English ISBN0-8039-9287-4ISBN978-0-8039-9287-0
• Gunder, Michael (2003). 'Passionate Planning for the Others' Desire: An Agonistic Response to the Dark Side of Planning'. Progress in Planning. 60 (3): 235–319. doi:10.1016/s0305-9006(02)00115-0.
• Pløger, John (2001). 'Public Participation and the Art of Governance'. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 28 (2): 219–241. doi:10.1068/b2669. S2CID143996926.
• Roy, Ananya (2008). 'Post-Liberalism: On the Ethico-Politics of Planning'. Planning Theory. 7 (1): 92–102. doi:10.1177/1473095207087526. S2CID143458706.
• Tang, Wing-Shing (2000). 'Chinese Urban Planning at Fifty: An Assessment of the Planning Theory Literature'. Journal of Planning Literature. 14 (3): 347–366. doi:10.1177/08854120022092700. S2CID154281106.
• Yiftachel, Oren, 1995, 'The Dark Side of Modernism: Planning as Control of an Ethnic Minority,' in Sophie Watson and Katherine Gibson, eds., Postmodern Cities and Spaces (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell), pp. 216–240.
• Yiftachel, Oren (1998). 'Planning and Social Control: Exploring the Dark Side'. Journal of Planning Literature. 12 (4): 395–406. doi:10.1177/088541229801200401. S2CID14859857.
• Yiftachel, Oren (2006). 'Re-engaging Planning Theory? Towards South-Eastern Perspectives'. Planning Theory. 5 (3): 211–222. doi:10.1177/1473095206068627. S2CID145359885.

Poker Planning Wikihow

Planning poker, also called Scrum poker, is a consensus-based, gamified technique for estimating, mostly used to estimate effort or relative size of development goals in software development. In planning poker, members of the group make estimates by playing numbered cards face-down to the table, instead of speaking them aloud. The cards are revealed, and the estimates are then discussed. By hiding the figures in this way, the group can avoid the cognitive bias of anchoring, where the first number spoken aloud sets a precedent for subsequent estimates.

Planning poker is a variation of the Wideband delphi method. It is most commonly used in agile software development, in particular in Scrum and Extreme Programming.

The method was first defined and named by James Grenning in 2002^[1] and later popularized by Mike Cohn in the book Agile Estimating and Planning,^[2] whose company trade marked the term ^[3] and a digital online tool.^[4]

Process[edit]

Rationale[edit]

The reason to use planning poker is to avoid the influence of the other participants. If a number is spoken, it can sound like a suggestion and influence the other participants' sizing. Planning poker should force people to think independently and propose their numbers simultaneously. This is accomplished by requiring that all participants show their card at the same time.

Equipment[edit]

Planning poker is based on a list of features to be delivered, several copies of a deck of cards and optionally, an egg timer that can be used to limit time spent in discussion of each item.

The feature list, often a list of user stories, describes some software that needs to be developed.

The cards in the deck have numbers on them. A typical deck has cards showing the Fibonacci sequence including a zero: 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89; other decks use similar progressions with a fixed ratio between each value such as 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.

The reason for using the Fibonacci sequence instead of simply doubling each subsequent value is because estimating a task as exactly double the effort as another task is misleadingly precise. A task which is about twice as much effort as a 5, has to be evaluated as either a bit less than double (8) or a bit more than double (13).

Several commercially available decks use the sequence: 0, ½, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 20, 40, 100, and optionally a ? (unsure), an infinity symbol (this task cannot be completed) and a coffee cup (I need a break, and I will make the rest of the team coffee). The reason for not exactly following the Fibonacci sequence after 13 is because someone once said to Mike Cohn 'You must be very certain to have estimated that task as 21 instead of 20.' Using numbers with only a single digit of precision (except for 13) indicates the uncertainty in the estimation. Some organizations^[which?] use standard playing cards of Ace, 2, 3, 5, 8 and king. Where king means: 'this item is too big or too complicated to estimate'. 'Throwing a king' ends discussion of the item for the current sprint.

Smartphones allow developers to use mobile apps instead of physical card decks. When teams are not in the same geographical locations, collaborative software can be used as replacement for physical cards.

Procedure[edit]

Poker Planning Wikipedia

At the estimation meeting, each estimator is given one deck of the cards. All decks have identical sets of cards in them.

The meeting proceeds as follows:

Planning Poker Wiki Deutsch

• A Moderator, who will not play, chairs the meeting.
• The Product Owner provides a short overview of one user story to be estimated. The team is given an opportunity to ask questions and discuss to clarify assumptions and risks. A summary of the discussion is recorded, e.g. by the Moderator.
• Each individual lays a card face down representing their estimate for the story. Units used vary - they can be days duration, ideal days or story points. During discussion, numbers must not be mentioned at all in relation to feature size to avoid anchoring.
• Everyone calls their cards simultaneously by turning them over.
• People with high estimates and low estimates are given a soap box to offer their justification for their estimate and then discussion continues.
• Repeat the estimation process until a consensus is reached. The developer who was likely to own the deliverable has a large portion of the 'consensus vote', although the Moderator can negotiate the consensus.
• To ensure that discussion is structured; the Moderator or the Product Owner may at any point turn over the egg timer and when it runs out all discussion must cease and another round of poker is played. The structure in the conversation is re-introduced by the soap boxes.

The cards are numbered as they are to account for the fact that the longer an estimate is, the more uncertainty it contains. Thus, if a developer wants to play a 6 he is forced to reconsider and either work through that some of the perceived uncertainty does not exist and play a 5, or accept a conservative estimate accounting for the uncertainty and play an 8.

Benefits[edit]

A study by Moløkken-Østvold and Haugen^[5] reported that planning poker provided accurate estimates of programming task completion time, although estimates by any individual developer who entered a task into the task tracker was just as accurate. Tasks discussed during planning poker rounds took longer to complete than those not discussed and included more code deletions, suggesting that planning poker caused more attention to code quality. Planning poker was considered by the study participants to be effective at facilitating team coordination and discussion of implementation strategies.

See also[edit]

• Comparison of Scrum software, which generally has support for planning poker, either included or as an optional add-on.

References[edit]

1. ^'Wingman Software Planning Poker - The Original Paper'. wingman-sw.com. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
2. ^Mike Cohn (November 2005). 'Agile Estimating and Planning'. Mountain Goat Software. Retrieved 1 February 2008.
3. ^'Planning poker - Trademark, Service Mark #3473287'. Trademark Status & Document Retrieval (TSDR). 15 January 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
4. ^Cohn, Mike. 'Planning Poker Cards: Effective Agile Planning and Estimation'. Mountain Goat Software. Mountain Goat Software. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
5. ^K Moløkken-Østvold, NC Haugen (10–13 April 2007). 'Combining Estimates with Planning Poker—An Empirical Study'. 18th Australian Software Engineering Conference. IEEE: 349–58. doi:10.1109/ASWEC.2007.15. ISBN978-0-7695-2778-9.

• Mike Cohn (2005). Agile Estimating and Planning (1 ed.). Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN978-0-13-147941-8.